TGFB1 and neoplasm: M1 macrophages exert anti-tumor effects by secreting pro-inflammatory factors such as interleukin 1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), while M2 macrophages promote tumor growth and immune escape by expressing anti-inflammatory or growth factors such as IL-10, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) [7].