TNF and neoplasm: The ECM is also involved in the secretion of various growth factors, like transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which are secreted by various cells of the TME and can initiate tumor cell growth, survival, migration, angiogenesis, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT).