During infections, bacteria-derived lipopolysaccharide (LPS) also has a role in activating the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and consequent stimulation of bile duct proliferation [89], as well as the accumulation of some bile acids like deoxycholic acid, which could promote several mechanisms such as enhanced expression of interleukin IL-6 and downregulation of farnesoid X receptor (FXR)-dependent chemoprotection, which could facilitate cancer development [90]. Here, NR1H4 is linked to infection.