TNF and infection: ,27 Further, elevated levels of IFNγ and TNFα are often reported in human CCHF cases and high levels may correlate with fatal outcome.28, 29, 30, 31, 32 MA-CCHFV infection of WT mice is only occasionally lethal and was not associated with systemically high levels of IFNγ or TNFα,12 while the model used by Golden et al.