Furthermore, a large number of studies have shown that along the signaling pathway from the upstream receptor (TLR7/8/9), to the intermediate adapter (SLC15A4/TASL) and the downstream transcription factor (IRF5), the abnormal function of any of those components may lead to autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA)23–31. Here, IRF5 is linked to rheumatoid arthritis.