MAPK3 and glioblastoma: PKCα plays a role in glioma cell proliferation and survival, either through EGFR/mTORC signalling,134 ERK1/2135 or activation of NF-κβ.136 PKCβ is activated in response to hypoxia and plays a pivotal role in regulating angiogenesis in brain endothelial cells.137,138 Therefore, PKCβ is likely a contributing factor to the irregular vasculature formed during glioblastoma development and has been of interest as a therapeutic target.139 Other members of the PKC family with demonstrated roles in glioblastoma pathogenesis include PKCδ,140,141 PKCε,; 142–145 PKCη,; 146–148 PKCλ/ι; 149,150 and PKCζ.