TNF and anthrax infection: It is important to note that bacteria in the bloodstream also induce robust production of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF) (Loving et al., 2007; Pickering et al., 2004), and a role of TNF in anthrax-caused death can be evidenced by the observation that anti-TNF antibody administration delays the death of B6 mice infected with B. anthracis (Kalns et al., 2002).