To further reveal the relationship between mCAFs and SPP1+ TAMs, correlation analysis of the TCGA-HNSC cohort was performed, and the results of the mCAF and SPP1+ TAM signatures showed a strong positive correlation (Fig. 6j; R = 0.75, P < 0.0001, Pearson’s correlation); moreover, the patients with higher mCAF and SPP1+ TAM infiltration levels had shorter OS (Fig. 6k), suggesting that these two cell types synergistically promote tumor progression. Here, SPP1 is linked to neoplasm.