TLR8 and viral infectious disease: Methods: Primary human monocytes or heparinized whole blood were stimulated with LPS or viral-infection mimicking ligands to TLR3 (p:IC), TLR7 (R837), TLR7/8 (R848), TLR8 (ssRNA40) or TLR9 (CpG), either alone or in combination, and with or without IL-1 blocking drugs (anakinra, canakinumab) or TLR8 inhibitor (CU-CPT9a).