HPSE and diabetes mellitus: In addition to the commonly used glucose-lowering drugs in clinical practice, there are alprostadil (prostaglandins), vitamin D3 and 1,25(OH)2D3 (Vitamin), α-lipoic acid (a fatty acid in the human body), melatonin (Indole heterocycles), zinc, octreotide (growth hormone), PG545 (heparanase inhibitor), β-hydroxybutyrate have also been shown in experiments to treat diabetes-related complications by modulating autophagy (138, 139, 161, 170, 214, 216, 217).