HRAS and neoplasm: RAS mutations, specifically in NRAS and HRAS, have been identified in a subset of PTC cases, leading to the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and facilitating tumor growth and progression (64).RET/PTC rearrangements, which result from chromosomal rearrangements involving the RET proto-oncogene, lead to constitutive activation of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase and are prevalent in PTC, particularly in radiation-induced cases (65).