TGFβ can be expressed and released by cancer cells, stromal fibroblasts, and other cell types in the TME, further promoting cancer development, forming the system structure of the tumor, inhibiting the activities of antitumor immune cells, and consequently resulting in an immunosuppressive environment, which prevents or weakens immunotherapy efficacy (6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 33, 34). Here, TGFB1 is linked to neoplasm.