TNF and congenital rubella syndrome: The TH1 cytokines involved in CRS are mainly TNF-α and IFN-γ which are produced by Th1 cells, cytotoxic T cells, NK cells as well as ILC1 and prior studies have reported that both TNF-α and IFN-γ play a substantial role in the development of inflammation and remodeling pathology, where the inflammatory response primarily driven by TNF-α and IFN-γ is even considered to be the main characteristic of TH1 inflammation (20).