TNF and atherosclerosis: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and BioPlanet signaling pathway analyses of the upregulated genes identified a collection of pathways with well-established proatherogenic functions, including phagosome, lipid and atherosclerosis, chemokine signaling pathways, TNF signaling, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway, IFN signaling and the activation of PI3K–AKT, MAPK and p38 signaling pathways (Fig. 4d).