TNF and rheumatic heart disease: A previous review by Xian and Zheng (2021) has identified three intervention targets that can be used for the treatment of RHD: interventions in IFN-γ and TNF-α--mediated ECM remodeling, suppression of α-SMA expression in TGF-β1-induced fibroblasts via the AKT/S6K pathway and disruption of STAT3 phosphorylation to prevent cytokine release from Th17 cells and reduce induction of valve damage by RHD.