Subsequently, mitochondrial dysfunction can promote cancer progression to an apoptosis-resistant/chemo-resistant and/or invasive phenotype through various mechanisms involving KRAS, c-Myc, MAPK, AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), PI3K/Akt, HIF-1α and TP53 [15,38,47,48,49,50]. Here, TP53 is linked to cancer.