TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, present in the intestinal lamina propria, are key antigen‐presenting cells (APCs) and can secrete large amounts of pro and anti‐inflammatory cytokines.[31] Nonetheless, various nonimmune cells such as epithelial cells, subepithelial myofibroblasts, adipocytes, and stromal fibroblasts, can also secrete cytokines and activate mucosal immune cells, contributing to inflammation.[27, 32, 33, 34] For example, TNF has been detected in great amounts in patients with IBD, being produced by CD14+ macrophages, adipocytes, fibroblasts, and T cells.[27, 35, 36]