VEGFA and neoplasm: In addition, VEGF can drive the suppressive effects on effector T cells by inhibiting the differentiation of progenitor cells to CD8+ T cells, reducing the proliferation and cytotoxic effects of CD8+ T cells, increasing the exhaustion of CD8+ T cells, promoting the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to M2 type and recruiting immunosuppressive cells (such as Tregs, MDSCs and M2-like TAMs) to exert immunosuppressive effects (61).