TNF and colitis: In colitis models, monocytes and immature macrophages can migrate to intestinal mucosa through the CCL2 or MCP-1 mediated recruitment and produce large quantities of inflammatory mediators such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNFα, as well as inflammatory chemokines like CCL2 and CCL3 to coordinate the recruitment of other innate and adaptive immune cells, such as neutrophils, Th1, and Th17 cells (82).