TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Although the pathogenesis of IBD is still unclear, it is mainly associated with genetic susceptibility, intestinal microbiota, environmental factors, and immunological dysregulation characterized by abnormal infiltration of T cells, B cells, macrophages, DCs, and neutrophils, which produce high levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and cytokines of the IL-23/Th17 pathway (15).