Fourteen out of 20 studies (70% of preclinical trials) [23, 28, 29, 31, 35, 36, 38, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52] assessed TNF-α levels in cancer models that received probiotics, and in 57% of the included studies (8 out of 14 studies) [23, 28, 29, 38, 43, 46, 50, 52], TNF-α declined significantly in probiotic-treated groups. Here, TNF is linked to cancer.