Firstly, we examined accumulation of LsCUL1 in healthy or BY-RFP-infected SBPHs, and showed that BY-RFP infection led to significantly increased ratio of CUL1Nedd (CUL1 with Nedd8 moiety) to CUL1 (Fig. 4d), indicating that BY-RFP interfered with de-neddylation of CUL1. Here, NEDD8 is linked to infection.