TNF and inflammatory response: When administered at 1 mg/kg by gavage, sanguinarine alleviated indomethacin-induced intestinal inflammation in rats and significantly reduced the colonic mucosal damage index score and tissue damage index, probably because sanguinarine promoted ZO-1 expression, inhibited TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 expression, suppressed inflammation, and protected intestinal barrier function, thus alleviating indomethacin-induced intestinal damage in rats [42].