ATR and infection: Vpr/VifIR-AA infected HeLa, THP1, or SupT cells were treated with vehicle, an ATM inhibitor (AZD1390) [70, 71], an ATR inhibitor (NU6027) [72], or caffeine, and γH2AX foci were quantified 48-hours post-infection (note: these cells were not treated with a DNA damaging agent).