TNF and systemic inflammatory response syndrome: By augmenting the SIRS responses, the anti-apoptotic (135) and pro-inflammatory properties of S100 proteins, which include the activation of neutrophils (136), the amplification of TNF production by monocytes (137) and the promotion of leukocyte transepithelial migration (138), offer potential explanations for how injury-induced elevations in S100 proteins may contribute to poor clinical trajectories.