Conditions that are associated with both CVD and heightened MSNA (e.g., obesity, hypertension and elevated insulin; Kalil & Haynes, 2012) are common comorbidities in females with PCOS (Amiri et al., 2020; Barber & Franks, 2021; Goodarzi et al., 2011). The gene discussed is INS; the disease is obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor deficiency.