These data are consistent with the hypothesis that TNFα reduces erythrocyte invasion,78 and malaria-specific nnCD4+ T cell production of TNFα has been correlated with protection following both natural infection26 and RTS,S vaccination.79, 80, 81, 82 Together, these data suggest that malaria-specific TNFα-producing nnCD4+ T cells may contribute to protection from malaria in pregnancy, though further research is needed to determine the factors involved in differentiation of these cells. Here, TNF is linked to malaria.