Specifically, EVs carrying HIV-1 viral products have been shown to elicit an immune response within recipient cells that increases susceptibility to infection and initiates the NF-κB pathway leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β), which can lead to neuronal injury and death as seen with HAND [5,11,12,14,33,34]. Here, IL1B is linked to infection.