TNF and atherosclerosis: To understand the mechanistic effects of GV1001 on periodontitis and periodontitis-associated atherosclerosis, we also investigated the in vitro effects of GV1001 on the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)-induced osteoclastogenesis and the TNF-α-induced phenotypic changes of vascular endothelial cells, major initiation and progression factors for atherosclerosis [17,20].