A recent paper that examined monocytes from people living with HIV found a strong correlation between serum levels of β-D-glucans and production of IL-1β in general (although specific stimulation with Candida albicans led to decreased cytokine production in this study) and suggested that the robust production of cytokines by monocytes in HIV-infection was linked to trained immunity in monocytes [52]. Here, IL1B is linked to HIV infectious disease.