PTEN and carcinoma of esophagus: PTEN loss-of-function alterations, especially deletion, are also detected in brain cancer [87], glioblastoma multiforme [99], anaplastic/poorly differentiated thyroid cancer [85], SCLC, NSCLC [77], melanoma [69], oesophageal cancer [100], gallbladder cancer [68], pancreatic cancer [101], renal cell carcinoma [102], prostate cancer [103], testicular germ cell tumors [75], cervical cancer [104], ovarian cancer [105], and many types of sarcoma [106, 76], leading to the typical pathological effects of PAM pathway (Fig. 1b).