Coculture of CCC cells with hepatic stellate cell line Lx-2 increased cancer cell migration and invasion.281 CCC cells in conventional and hypoxic conditions have been observed to promote tumor-associated macrophage polarization and TGF-β1 secretion via paracrine Shh ligands, thereby promoting CCC cell growth, metastasis and endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis via TGF-β1.282. Here, TGFB1 is linked to cancer.