OAC: oropharyngeal administration of colostrum; NEC: necrotizing enterocolitis; LOS: late-onset sepsis; VAP: ventilator-associated pneumonia; TGF-b: transforming growth factor-beta; RCT: randomized control trial; NICU: neonatal intensive care unit; INF-g: interferon gamma; IL: interleukin; sIgA: secretory IgA; OMOM: oral application of mother’s own milk; OPAMM; oropharyngeal administration of mother’s milk. Here, IFNG is linked to ventilator-associated pneumonia.