VEGFA and neoplasm: Multiple preclinical hypotheses have been speculated for VEGF-mediated immunosuppression, including: (1) increasing T cell exhaustion and decreasing effector function; (2) impairment of T cell priming by suppression of DC maturation; (3) promotion of Treg infiltration and proliferation; and (4) promotion of polarization of tumor-associated macrophages toward a more immunosuppressive phenotype57–59.