GDF15 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: For instance, in patients with type 2 diabetes, GDF-15 was predictive of adverse cardiovascular (myocardial infarction, stroke and cardiovascular death) and renal outcomes (40% decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate, end-stage renal failure and renal death), in addition to HF.27 In outpatients with cardiovascular risk factors, GDF-15 was predictive of all-cause mortality and stroke.28 This hypothesis is also biologically plausible.