GDF15 and cardiovascular disorder: GDF-15 is released by a wide variety of cell types (skeletal and cardiac muscle, vascular endothelial cells, fibroblasts and immune cells) in response to tissue injury, physiological stress and ageing.29 GDF-15 has been shown to have a key role in regulating mitochondrial function, cellular metabolism and oxidative stress.29 It is therefore likely that GDF-15 is involved in many cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular disease states.