Furthermore, in AD patients, Staphylococcus aureus-derived EVs (SEVs) trigger dermal microvascular endothelial cells (DMECs) to induce the expression of E-selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and IL-6 release via TLR4-NF-ĸB signaling, thereby promoting leukocytes’ adhesion to the endothelium and their subsequent transmigration to promote AD progression [157]. Here, TLR4 is linked to Alzheimer disease.