CCL2 and renal fibrosis: Exogenous SCFAs have previously been shown to improve insulin resistance, inhibit hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress, prevent DN manifestations such as proteinuria and increased serum creatinine, inhibit NF-κB activation, suppress inflammatory cytokine, MCP-1, and interleukin-1β expressions, and prevent mesangial matrix accumulation and renal fibrosis [18] by suppressing hyperglycaemia-induced TGF-β1 synthesis [30].