GDF15 and diabetes mellitus: Higher than normal serum concentrations of GDF-15 have been described in the following non-atherosclerotic conditions or diseases: neurocognitive impairment, pulmonary hypertension, hypertension, atrial fibrillation, heart failure, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, end-stage kidney disease, cachexia, obesity, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, chronic inflammatory diseases, and malignancies [5].