TNF and pulmonary edema: LPS is a component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that induces inflammatory responses, and in the results of pretreatment with usnic acid, it was found that mortality in the animal model was significantly reduced with a dose of 50–100 mg/Kg, in addition to reducing LPS-induced pulmonary edema, decreasing the levels of macrophage and neutrophil cells, and markedly reducing the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-8 [48].