NOS2 and Parkinson disease: Microgliosis, astrogliosis, and the CD8+ and CD4+ adaptive immune T cells present in the brain of PD specimens (human and models) can lead to the induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX) alongside the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12), TNFα, interferon-γ (IFNγ), IL6 and IL1β [44,79,80,81].