Offspring insulin levels (SMD = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.33, 0.85; n = 263 participants; Fig. 3b) and birthweight (SMD= 0.59, 95% CI: 0.39, 079; n = 312 newborn; Fig. 3c) were significantly higher in infants from mothers with GDM compared to those from NPW. Here, INS is linked to gestational diabetes.