Compared to the control group, there were dramatic changes in the enterocytes of ALF mice, and genes associated with intestinal microbes, absorption, and inflammation, e.g., Saa1, Hk2 (promoting epithelial microbial infection36), Stom (regulating ion transport), Socs3 (promoting IBD progression37) and Reg3g (intestinal antimicrobial peptide), were significantly upregulated in the enterocytes of ALF mice (Fig. 3a). Here, HK2 is linked to inflammatory bowel disease.