A pooled, nested case–control study from three cohorts of middle-aged and older adults identified a significantly increased risk of occurrence of pancreatic cancer in subjects with higher prediagnostic circulating leptin concentrations among those with longer follow-up [87].Another nested case–control study also revealed that higher prediagnostic levels of plasma leptin were associated with an elevated risk of pancreatic cancer, but only among men, not among women [88]. This evidence concerns the gene LEP and familial pancreatic carcinoma.