TNF and neoplasm: Anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1 inhibition considerably improves responses in pre-clinical tumor models, leading to much higher Teff-to-suppressor cells (myeloid-derived suppressor cell and Treg) ratios and the generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) (55).