TNF and Alzheimer disease: Studies revealed that SASP factors, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), were upregulated in AD, as evidenced by their elevation in the brains, CSF, and serum of AD patients (Blum-Degena et al., 1995; Dursun et al., 2015; Huell et al., 1995; Lai et al., 2017; Rea et al., 2018; Swardfager et al., 2010; Wood et al., 1993).