TNF and infection: Infection of keratinocytes leads to an increased production of cytokines interleukin (IL)1ß [52,77], IL6, TNFα [78], IFNß, IFNγ [49], and chemokines CXCL-1, 2, 8, 10, and CCL20 [78] which are critical for recruiting local immune cells and establishing an antiviral immune state shortly after an infectious mosquito bite.