TNF and Hyperglycemia: The inflammatory microenvironment induced by hyperglycemia includes hyperactivated immune cells, increased chemokines and pro-inflammatory factors such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and altered ratios of T helper 17 (Th17) cells and T regulatory (Treg) cells in the peripheral blood [100,101,102].