It should be noted that associations not necessarily mean the cause-effect relationship, therefore mechanistic studies are required to prove the causative role of NAP-2 in a prothrombotic state in AF, Finally, long-term follow-up is needed to assess the role of elevated NAP-2 concentrations in predicting clinical outcomes in AF patients during anticoagulant therapy. This evidence concerns the gene PPBP and atrial fibrillation.