However, implications of non-hemodynamic pathways, such as dysfunctional sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activation, persistent renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) activation, and ROS/NO imbalance, exacerbating the inflammatory and immune signalling pathways, are also operative in CRS (Ronco et al., 2012a; Haase et al., 2013). Here, REN is linked to congenital rubella syndrome.