BDNF and Cognitive impairment: However, further studies using loss-of-function and/or gain-of-function mutation models are required to provide evidence for the implications of the tested mediators including IL-1β, TNF-α, TNFR, caspase-3, NF-κB, TGF-β, BDNF, and GSK-3β in the Aβ25–35-induced neurodegenerative damage and cognitive impairment and their roles in the BM-MSC- and GSI-953-induced recovery.