GFAP and brain inflammatory disease: For detecting the in vivo effects of LPS and LETX-VI on mouse brain inflammation, the levels of ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule-1(Iba-1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), biomarkers for the activation of microglia and astrocytes, respectively (57), in the substantia nigra and hippocampus were determined with immunofluorescent staining.